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Hadhramaut

Coordinates: 16°N 49°E / 16°N 49°E / 16; 49
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Hadhramaut
حَضْرَمَوْتُ
Historical region of Arabia
The old walled city of Shibam, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Seiyun Palace, one of the world’s largest mud-brick structures
The Minerate of al-Muhdhar Mosque
Al-Hajarayn, Wadi Dowan
Mukalla, capital city of Hadhramaut
Map of Hadhramaut in the Arabian Peninsula
Map of Hadhramaut in the Arabian Peninsula
Coordinates: 16°N 49°E / 16°N 49°E / 16; 49
Countries
Most populous cities
List
Governorates
List
Highest elevation
[1] (Kawr Saybān)
6,690 m (21,950 ft)
DemonymHadharem

Hadhramaut[note 1] (Arabic: حَضْرَمَوْتُ, romanized: Ḥaḍramawt, /ˌhɑ.drəˈmɔ(ː)t/ ⓘ; Hadrami Arabic: حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramūt) is a geographic region in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula which includes the Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Shabwa and al-Mahra, as well as Aden, Abyan and Lahij. Some sources also include Dhofar Governorate, in southwestern Oman, and Shaurah, in Najran Province, in southern Saudi Arabia. The name is of ancient origin, and is reflected in the name of the Yemeni Governorate of Hadhramaut. The people of Hadhramaut are called the Hadharem. They formerly spoke Hadramautic, an old South Arabian language, but they now predominantly speak Hadhrami Arabic.

Etymology

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The origin of the name of Ḥaḍramawt is not exactly known, and there are numerous debated hypotheses regarding its meaning. The most popular folk etymology is that the word means "death has come", from the Arabic: حَضَر, romanized: ḥaḍara, lit. 'he came' or also Arabic: مَوْت, romanized: mawt, lit. 'death'.

The name Ḥaḍramawt has also been found within Biblical Hazarmaveth (Biblical Hebrew: חֲצַרְמָוֶת, romanized: Ḥăṣarmāweṯ; Genesis 10:26[2] and 1 Chronicles 1:20).[3] There, it is the name of a son of Joktan, identified as Qahtan (southern Arab) in Islam, the purported ancestor and progenitor of the South Arabian kingdoms. According to various Bible dictionaries, the name Hazarmaveth means "court of death", reflecting a meaning similar to the Arabic folk etymologies.

Though the origins of the name are unknown, there are several scholarly proposals. Kamal Salibi says that the diphthong "-aw" is an incorrect vocalisation,[4] noting that "-ūt" is a frequent ending for place names in the Ḥaḍramawt; given that "Ḥaḍramūt" is the colloquial pronunciation of the name, and also its ancient pronunciation, the correct reading of the name would thus be "place of ḥḍrm". Salibi proposes, then, that the name means "the green place", which is appropriate given its well-irrigated wadis, giving a lushness that contrasts with the surrounding high desert plateau.

A now-rejected etymology was proposed by Juris Zarins, the twentieth-century discoverer of the city, who claimed it to be the ancient incense trade route capital Ubar in Oman, also called the "Atlantis of the Sands". He also claimed that the name may come from the Greek word ὕδρευματα hydreumata, i.e. enclosed (and often fortified), referring to watering stations within the wadis.[5] Though it accurately describes the configuration of settlements in the pre-Islamic Wadi Ḥaḍramawt, this explanation for the name is anachronistic and phonetically inconsistent; for example, the name contains pharyngeal fricatives, which are neither found nor substituted-for in existing Greek speech.

Variations of the name are attested-to as early as the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The names ḥḍrmt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩) and ḥḍrmwt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩥𐩩) are found in texts of the Old South Arabian languages (Ḥaḍramitic, Minaic, Qatabanic and Sabaic), though the second form is not found in any known Ḥaḍramitic inscriptions.[6] In either form, the word itself can be a toponym, a tribal name, or the name of the kingdom of Ḥaḍramawt. In the late fourth or early 3rd century BC, Theophrastus gives the name Άδρραμύτα,[7] a direct transcription of the Semitic name into Greek.

History

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Main article: History of Hadhramaut
Part of a series on the
History of Yemen
Ancient history
Islamic history
   

Zurayids (266–316)

Hamdanids (304–439)

Mahdids (304–439)

   

Tahirid state (266–316)

Kathiri State (304–439)

Modern history
   

South Yemen (1967–1990)

North Yemen (1962–1990)

Related topics
flag Yemen portal

Ancient

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Main article: Kingdom of Hadhramaut
Further information: Ancient history of Yemen
An ancient sculpture of a griffin, from the royal palace at Shabwa, the then-capital city of Hadhramaut
Remains of Khor Rori

The Kingdom of Hadramout existed before the birth of Christ, but its exact date of founding cannot be confirmed. Its capital was Shabwa, not far from the city of Teman (the capital of the Kingdom of Qataban),[8] a tribal federation consisting of several tribes united by their common veneration of the lunar god Sin; Hadramout was originally the name of one of the tribes. The mention of Hadramout and its god Sin is found in the inscription of Surwah by the Makrib Sabean writer Karib'il Watar I around 700–680 BCE. The Kingdom, led by King Shahr-al-Khuraymat, formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Ma'in and the Kingdom of Qataban and became independent from the Kingdom of Sheba around 330 BCE, during which the Himyarite dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Sheba.[9][10] The relationship between the Kingdom of Hadramout and the Himyarite Kingdom remained tense, with both sides waging wars against each other for control of the trade routes and territory in the region.[11]

The Hadhrami are referred to as Chatramotitai in ancient Greek texts. Hadhramautic texts come later than Sabaean ones, and some Sabaean texts from Hadhramaut are known. Greek, Latin, Sabaean and Hadhramautic texts preserve the names of a large number of kings of Hadhramaut, but there is as yet no definitive chronology of their reigns. Their capital was Shabwa in the northwest corner of the kingdom, along the Incense trade route. Eratosthenes called it a metropolis. It was an important cult centre as well. At first, the religion was South Arabian polytheism, distinguished by the worship of the Babylonian moon god Sin. By the sixth century, the monotheistic cult of Rahmanan was followed in the local temple.[12]

The political history of Hadhramaut is not easy to piece together. Numerous wars involving Hadhramaut are referenced in Sabaean texts. From their inscriptions, the Hadhrami are known to have fortified Libna (now Qalat [ar])[13] against Himyar and to have fortified mwyt (Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb حِصْن ٱلْغُرَاب) against the Kingdom of Aksum in the period following the death of Dhū Nuwās (525/7). The kingdom ceased to exist by the end of the 3rd century CE, having been annexed by the Himyarite Kingdom. Hadhramaut continued to be used in the full titulature of the kings of Sabaʾ and Dhu Raydān (Himyar).[12]

In the 2nd century CE, Hadramout was known for its frankincense and myrrh trade.[14] The incense trade route (southern incense route) that passed through the southern part of Hadramout helped the region flourish economically and culturally.[15] The Kingdom of Hadramout played a significant role in connecting the cultures of Arabia, Mesopotamia, East Africa, and the Roman Empire.[16]

Islamic

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The flag of Hadhramaut in the Battle of Siffin
Hadhramaut in a 1732 copy of the map by Ottoman geographer Kâtip Çelebi (1609–57), from the first printed atlas in the Ottoman Empire

In the 7th century, Islam spread to Hadramout, and it was gradually integrated into the Caliphate. The region played a role in Islamic history during the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate. In the 11th century, the Hadramout region came under the rule of the Mahdids, who were of Banu Hadhrami origin.[17]: 237  They established the Qasimi dynasty, which ruled the region for several centuries.[17]: 239 

Early Islamic authors believed the nomadic Kinda tribe that founded a kingdom in central Arabia were originally from Hadhramaut, although distinct from the settled Hadhrami population.[12]

Miqdad ibn Aswad, a companion of Muhammad, was reportedly from Hadhramaut.[18] Several prophets before them are believed to have dwelt here, including Hud of ʿĀd. He is thought to be buried at Qabr Hud,[19][20] which is also called Shiʿb Hud, but this is not universally accepted.[21][22]

Portuguese and Ottoman Influence

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In the 16th century, the Portuguese arrived in Hadhramaut and established several settlements along the southern coast. However, their influence was short-lived as the Yemeni Imams managed to drive them out by the 17th century.[23]: 115  Subsequently, Hadhramaut came under Ottoman influence, and the Ottomans maintained control over the region until the early 20th century.[23]: 114 

Modern

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Sultanates and the British rule

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Flag of the Kathiri state in Hadhramaut
Flag of the Qu'aiti state in Hadhramaut

The Qu'aiti sultans ruled the vast majority of Hadramaut, under a loose British protectorate, the Aden Protectorate, from 1882 to 1967, when the Hadhramaut was annexed by South Yemen. The Qu'aiti dynasty was founded by Umar bin Awadh al-Qu'aiti, a Yafa'i tribesman whose wealth and influence as hereditary Jemadar of the Nizam of Hyderabad's armed forces enabled him to establish the Qu'aiti dynasty in the latter half of the 19th century, winning British recognition of his paramount status in the region in 1882. The British Government and the traditional and scholarly sultan Ali bin Salah signed a treaty in 1937, appointing the British government as "advisors" in Hadhramaut. The British exiled him to Aden in 1945, but the Protectorate lasted until 1967.[citation needed]

Communist rule

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In 1967, the former British Colony of Aden and the former Aden Protectorate including Hadramaut became an independent Communist state, the People's Republic of Southern Yemen, later the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. South Yemen was united with North Yemen in 1990 as the Republic of Yemen.[24]

Contemporary Yemen

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The capital and largest city of Hadhramaut is the port Mukalla. Mukalla had a 1994 population of 122,400 and a 2003 population of 174,700, while the port city of Ash Shihr has grown from 48,600 to 69,400 in the same time. One of the more historically important cities in the region is Tarim. An important locus of Islamic learning, it is estimated to contain the highest concentration of descendants of Muhammad anywhere in the world.[25]

Geography

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See also: Geology of Yemen; Geography of Yemen; South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune; and Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
Region close to Seiyun in the Wadi Hadhramaut

Political geography

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The borders of Hadhramaut have varied over time to include the territory between Aden and Dhofar, but it always included the Wadi Hadhramaut, the lands between the Wadi and the coast, and the desert region of the Empty Quarter north of the Wadi.[26] This encompasses the current governorates of Hadramaut and Mahra in their entirety as well as parts of the Shabwah Governorate.[27][26] The current governorate of Hadhramaut roughly incorporates the former territory of the two sultanates.[26]

The Hadharem live in densely built towns centered on traditional watering stations along the wadis. Hadharem harvest crops of wheat and millet, tend date palm and coconut groves, and grow some coffee. On the plateau, Bedouins tend sheep and goats. Society is still highly tribal, with the old Seyyid aristocracy, descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, traditionally educated, strict in their Islamic observance, and highly respected in religious and secular affairs.[28]

Physical geography

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Al-Shaggain in Burum, Brom Mayfa District

Hadhramaut is geographically divided into Inner Hadhramaut (Hadrami Arabic: حضرموت الداخل) which is made up of Wadi Hadhramaut, smaller tributary wadis south from the main wadi, and Coastal Hadhramaut (Hadrami Arabic: حضرموت الساحل)[28] which consists of a narrow, arid coastal plain bounded by the steep escarpment of a broad plateau locally known as the Jowl (Hadrami Arabic: ٱلْجَوْل, romanized: al-Jawl, averaging 1,370 m (4,490 ft)).[29] The undefined northern edge of Hadhramaut slopes down to the desert of the Empty Quarter, where the Hadhramaut Plateau or Highlands (Arabic: هَضْبَة حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Haḍbat Ḥaḍramawt) meets the Gulf of Aden in the Arabian Sea, elevation abruptly decreases.[30]

Inner Hadhramaut

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Mountains
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See also: Hadhramaut Mountains

The Hadhramaut Mountains (Arabic: جِبَال حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Jibāl Ḥaḍramawt),[31] also known as the "Mahrat Mountains"[32] (Arabic: جِبَال ٱلْمَهْرَة, romanized: Jibāl Al-Mahrah), are a mountain range in Yemen.[33] They are contiguous with the Omani Dhofar Mountains to the northeast,[30] and James Canton considered Aden in the southwest to be in the mountains' recesses.[34]

Wadis
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Image of Wadi Hadhramaut, its tributaries and the plateau from the ISS

Wadi Hadhramaut (Arabic: وادي حضرموت) is the main wadi in the region which has 16 tributary wadis, which are:[1]

From its southern plateau:

  • Wadi Dahr
  • Wadi Rahyah
  • Wadi 'Amd
  • Wadi Dawan
  • Wadi al'Ain
  • Wadi Manoob bin Ali
  • Wadi 'Adim
  • Wadi 'Aynat
  • Wadi Tena
  • Wadi Sena

From its northern plateau:

  • Wadi Hanin
  • Wadi Sad
  • Wadi Na'am
  • Wadi Ja'imah
  • Wadi Thabi
  • Wadi al-Jon
Desert
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Coastal Hadhramaut

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Culture

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Clothing

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Cuisine

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Music and dance

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Architecture

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Economy

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Historically, Hadhramaut was known for being a major producer of frankincense, which in the early 20th century was mainly exported to Mumbai in India.[35]: 84  The region has also produced senna and coconut. Currently, Hadhramaut produces approximately 260,000 barrels of oil per day; one of the most productive fields is Al Maseelah in the strip (14), which was discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is keen to develop its oil fields to increase oil production to increase national wealth in response to the requirements of economic and social development in the country. Oil contributes 30–40% of the nation's GDP, over 70% of total state revenues, and more than 90% of the value of the country's exports.[35]: 85 

Oil and gas

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A Soviet discovery in the southern governorate of Shabwah has proven only marginally successful even when taken over by a different group. A Western consortium began exporting oil from Masila in the Hadhramaut in 1993, and production there reached 67,000 m3/d (420,000 bbl/d) in 1999. There are new finds in the Jannah (formerly known as the Joint Oil Exploration Area) and east Shabwah blocks. Yemen's oil exports in 1995 earned about US$1 billion. Yemen's offshore oil and gas deposits are estimated to contain billions of barrels of oil and gas. Marib oil contains associated natural gas. In September 1995, the Yemeni Government signed an agreement that designated TotalEnergies of France to be the lead company for a project for the export of liquefied natural gas (LNG). In 1997, Yemen Gas Company joined with various privately held companies to establish Yemen LNG (YLNG). In August 2005, the government gave final approval to three LNG supply agreements, enabling YLNG to award a $2 billion contract to an international consortium to build the country's first liquefaction plant at Balhat on the Arabian Sea coast. The project is a $3.7 billion investment over 25 years, producing approximately 6.7 million tons of LNG annually, with shipments likely to go to the United States and South Korea. Production of LNG began in October 2009. The Yemen government expects the LNG project to add $350 million to its budget and enable it to develop a petrochemicals industry.[36]

Hadramout produces approximately 258.8 thousand barrels per day.[37] One of the prominent oil fields is the Masila Basin Sector (14), discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is committed to developing its oil fields to increase oil production, aiming to enhance national wealth in response to the country's economic and social development needs. Oil contributes between 30% and 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) value and represents more than 70% of the total general budget revenues of the state. Moreover, it constitutes more than 90% of the country's export value.[38]

Politics

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Demographics

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See also: Ba 'Alawi sada

The people of the region are known as the Hadharem belong generally to the semitic south Arabians who claim descent from Yarub bin Qahtan. There is, however, a large number of Sada (Hadrami Arabic: سادة, romanized: Sadah; Singular: Sayyid), or descendant of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed descent. The Sada, descendants of Husain ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic Prophet, Form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into families, tho chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people and are even in some cases are regarded with great respect as saints. Among the leading families are that of Sheikh Abu Bakar bin Salem (Hadrami Arabic: الشيخ ابو بكر بن سالم) of ʽAynat, al-Aidarus (Hadrami Arabic: العيدروس) of Shihr and Wadi Dawan, Bin Sumayt (Hadrami Arabic: بن سميط) of Shibam and the Sakkaf (Hadrami Arabic: سقاف) of Seiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade nor manual labour nor even agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other classes they are well educated and are strict tn their observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent they exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs.[39][40]

The Mashayikh (Hadrami Arabic: المشايخ) is another highly regarded group that is second in prestige to the Sada. Like the Sada, they don't bear arms.[41] Men from this group are given the honorific surname Sheikh (Hadrami Arabic: شيخ) and women are given the surname Sheikha (Hadrami Arabic: شيخة) which is different from the term Sheikh (Arabic: شيخ) that is used to refer to a tribal chief or a Muslim scholar.[41] Prominent Mashayikh families include the ‘Amudi (Hadrami Arabic: العمودي), Ba Wazir (Hadrami Arabic: با وزير), and Ba ‘Abbad (Hadrami Arabic: با عبّاد) families.[41]

The Qaba'il (Hadrami Arabic: القبائل) or tribesmen, as in the rest of Arabia, are the predominant class in the population. All the adults carry arms. Some of the tribes have settled towns and villages, others live a bedouin life keeping however within the territory which is recognised as belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief whilst the head of the tribe is called the muqaddam or sultan. He is the leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he can only rule with their support.[39] Historically, the most powerful tribes in Hadhramaut was the Qu’aiti, a branch of the Yafa'a tribe. Originally invited by the Sada to protect the settled districts against the marauding tribes, they established themselves as rulers of the country, and possessed the coastal districts with the towns of Mukalla and Shihr as well as Shibam in the interior. The family had accumulated great wealth and was in the service of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India as commander of the Arab levy composed of his tribesmen.[39][40]

the townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as distinguished from the Sada and the tribesmen; they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants, artificers, cultivators, and servants and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave trade nourished on this coast; as all Islamic countries they are well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.[39][40]

Hadhrami diaspora

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Main article: Hadharem § Diaspora

Since the early 19th century, large-scale Hadhramaut migration has established sizable Hadhrami minorities all around the Indian Ocean,[42] in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Africa, including Mombasa, Hyderabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtrian Konkan,[43][44] Mangalore, Bhatkal, Gangolli, Malabar, Sylhet, Tanzania, the Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, southern Philippines and Singapore.[45] In Hyderabad and Aurangabad, the community is known as Chaush and resides mostly in the neighborhood of Barkas. There are also settlements of Hadharem in Gujarat, such as in Ahmadabad and Surat. In South India, the Nawayath community also descends from Hadrami traders.

Earlier, several sultans in the Malay Archipelago such as the Malacca Sultanate,[46] Pontianak Sultanate or Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura were descents of Hadharem . In the 19th century, Hadhrami businessmen owned many of the maritime armada of barks, brigs, schooners and other ships in the Malay archipelago.[47] In modern times, several Indonesian ministers, including former Foreign Minister Ali Alatas and former Finance Minister Mar'ie Muhammad are of Hadhrami descent, as is the former Prime Minister of East Timor, Mari Alkatiri (2006).[48]

The Hadharem have also settled in large numbers along the East African coast,[49] and two former ministers in Kenya, Shariff Nasser and Najib Balala, are of Hadhrami descent. It has also been proved by genetic evidence[50] that the Lemba people of Southern Africa bear some relation to the people of Hadramaut.[51]

Within the Hadhramaut region there has been a historical Jewish population.[52][53][54]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^ Also romanized as Hadramaut, Hadramout or Hadramawt

References

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  1. ^ a b "حضرموت". المركز الوطني للمعلومات. Retrieved November 14, 2024.
  2. ^ Genesis 10:26
  3. ^ 1 Chronicles 1:20
  4. ^ Salibi, Kamal (1981). al-Qāḍī (ed.). "Ḥaḍramūt: A Name with a Story". Studia Arabica et Islamica: Festschrift for Iḥsān ʿAbbās on His Sixtieth Birthday: 393–397.
  5. ^ "Lost City of Arabia" (NOVA online interview with Dr. Juris Zarins, September 1996). PBS. September 1996.
  6. ^ "General word list". DASI: Digital Archive for the Study of pre-islamic arabian Inscriptions. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
  7. ^ Theophrastus: Historia Plantarum. 9,4.
  8. ^ Naval Western Arabia & The Red Sea p.224 Routledge, 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-20995-6
  9. ^ Holger Gzella Languages from the World of the Bible p.162 Walter de Gruyter, 2011 ISBN 978-1-934078-63-1
  10. ^ Woodard The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia p.145 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-1-139-46934-0
  11. ^ Leonard & Brunschvig The Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol. II, p.183 ISBN 978-90-04-05745-6
  12. ^ a b c Beeston, A. F. L. (1971). "Ḥaḍramawt, I. Pre-Islamic Period". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 51–53. OCLC 495469525.
  13. ^ "South Arabia". nabataea.net. Retrieved October 8, 2019.
  14. ^ Robin (2017). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-134-64634-0.
  15. ^ Miller Arabic Geography in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries p.37 Indiana University Press, 1999
  16. ^ Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Central Arabia p.953 Government of India, 1908
  17. ^ a b Daftary, Farhad. The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. pp. 237–239.
  18. ^ al Asqalani, Ibn Hajar; Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafii, Abū ʿAbdillāh; ibn Kathir, Ismail; ibn faisal al-Tamimi al-Darimi, Abu Hatim Muhammad. "Al-Isabah Fi Tamyiz Al-Sahabah by Ibn Hajr; al Istishaab by Shafii; al Bidayah wan Nihayah by Ibn Kathir; Kitab al Sahaba by Ibn Hibban". Islam story. Story of Islam. Retrieved February 11, 2020.
  19. ^ Wensinck, A.J.; Pellat, Ch. (1960–2007). "Hūd" (PDF). In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 537. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2920. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 23, 2015. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
  20. ^ van der Meulen, Daniel [in Dutch]; von Wissmann, Hermann (1964). Hadramaut: Some of its mysteries unveiled. Publication of the De Goeje Fund no. 9. (1st ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-9-0040-0708-6.
  21. ^ Serjeant, Robert Bertram (1954). "Hud and Other Pre-islamic Prophets in Hadhramawt". Le Muséon. 67. Peeters Publishers: 129.
  22. ^ Al-Harawi, Ali ibn Abi Bakr. Kitab al-Isharat ila Ma rifat al-Ziyarat [Book of indications to make known the places of visitations]. pp. 97, 220–221.
  23. ^ a b Malekandathil, Pius. The Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India. pp. 114–115.
  24. ^ "2 Yemens Become One, and Celebrate". The New York Times. May 23, 1990. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  25. ^ Alexandroni, Sam (October 18, 2007). "No Room at the Inn". New Statesman. Archived from the original on July 9, 2008.
  26. ^ a b c Talib, Saadaldeen; Petouris, Thanos; Lackner, Helen; Kaptein, Nicolaas J. G.; Arai, Kazuhiro; Clarence-Smith, William G.; Spencer, James; Walker, Iain; Pétriat, Philippe (2017). Brehony, Noel (ed.). Hadhramaut and its diaspora: Yemeni politics, identity and migration. Library of modern Middle East studies. Hadhramaut Research Centre. London New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-78672-167-9.
  27. ^ Schofield, Richard N.; Blake, Gerald Henry (1988), "Arabian Boundaries: Primary Documents, 1853–1957", Archive Editions, vol. 22, p. 220, ISBN 1-85207-130-3, ...should be made along the coast to the west as far as the DHOFAR-HADHRAMAUT frontier...
  28. ^ a b ميخائيل رودينوف. عادات وتقاليد حضرموت الغربية.
  29. ^ Boxberger, Linda (2002). On the Edge of Empire: Hadhramawt, Emigration, and the Indian Ocean, 1880s-1930s. State University of New York Press. p. 13. doi:10.1353/book4490. ISBN 978-0-7914-8935-2.
  30. ^ a b Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Fisher, Martin (April 17, 2013). "1–2". Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 27–55. ISBN 978-9-4017-3637-4.
  31. ^ Bilādī, ʿĀtiq ibn Ghayth (1982). بين مكة وحضرموت: رحلات ومشاهدات (in Arabic). دار مكة.
  32. ^ Cavendish, Marshall (2006). "I: Geography and climate". World and Its Peoples: The Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Cavendish Publishing. pp. 9–144. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0.
  33. ^ Scoville, Sheila A. (2006). Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula. Vol. 2. Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. pp. 117–122. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0.
  34. ^ Canton, James (August 25, 2014). "4: Modernising Arabia". From Cairo to Baghdad: British Travellers in Arabia. London and New York City: I.B. Tauris. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8577-3571-3.
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